Definition and Examples of Phonological Words

In spoken language, a phonological word is a  prosodic unit that can be preceded and followed by a pause. Also known as a  prosodic word, a pword, or a mot. The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology,  defines a  phonological word as the domain within which certain phonological or prosodic rules apply, for example, rules of syllabification or stress placement. Phonological words may be smaller or larger than grammatical or orthographic words. The term phonological word was introduced by linguist Robert M.W. Dixon in 1977 and later adopted by other writers. According to Dixon, It is quite common for grammatical word (set up on grammatical criteria) and phonological word (justified phonologically) to coincide. Examples and Observations From the book, What Is Morphology?: A phonological word can be defined as a string of sounds that behaves as a unit for certain kinds of phonological processes, especially stress or accent. For the most part, we dont have to distinguish phonological words from other kinds of words. It makes no difference for the words morphology, calendar, Mississippi, or hot dog whether we think of them as phonological words or morphological words. Sometimes we do need to separate the two notions. In English, every phonological word has a main stress. Elements that are written as separate words but do not have their own stress are therefore not phonological words in English. Consider...the sentence The hot dogs ran for the lake. Think now in terms of word stress. The sentence has seven words, but only four-word stresses, there being no stress on the or for. In fact, the English written word the receives stress only under unusual circumstances, in exchanges like the following: A: I saw Jennifer Lopez on Fifth Avenue last night.B: Not the Jennifer Lopez? Prepositions like for sometimes have stress, but as often as not are also included in the stress domain of the following word. We, therefore, say that the string for the lake, which we write as three separate words, is a single phonological word. Phonological Words and Syllabification According to Willem J.M. Levelt and Peter Indefrey in the book, Image, Language, Brain, Phonological words are the domains of syllabification, and these often do not coincide with lexical words. For instance, in uttering the sentence they hate us, hate and us will blend into a single phonological word: a speaker will cliticize us to hate, which leads to the syllabification ha-tus. Here the last syllable tus straddles the lexical boundary between verb and pronoun. Pauses and Infixes In the book, Word: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, R.M.W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenuald  say that  Pausing appears in most cases (although perhaps not in all) to be related not to the grammatical word but to the phonological word. In English, for instance, there are just a few examples of two grammatical words making up one phonological word, e.g. dont, wont, hell. One would not pause between the grammatical words do- and nt in the middle of the phonological word dont (one could of course pause between the do and not of do not, since these are distinct phonological words). The places where expletives may be inserted, as a matter of emphasis, are closely related to (but not necessarily identical to) the places where a speaker may pause. Expletives are normally positioned at word boundaries (at positions which are the boundary for grammatical word and also for phonological word). But there are exceptions—for instance the sergeant-majors protest that I wont have no more insu bloody bordination from you lot or such things as Cinda bloody rella...McCarthy (1982)—shows that in English expletives may only be positioned immediately before a stressed syllable. What was one unit now becomes two phonological words (and the expletive is a further word). Each of these new phonological words is stressed on its first syllable; this is in keeping with the fact that most phonological words in English are stressed on the first syllable. The Interaction Between Phonology and Morphology [T]he phonological word represents the interaction between phonology and morphology in that a phonological word either corresponds to a morphological word or is constructed on the basis of information on the internal structure of morphological words. By morphological word is meant a (possible compound) stem plus all affixes associated with it, says Marit Julien in Syntactic Heads and Word Formation.   Sources Aronoff, Mark and Kirsten Fudeman.  What is Morphology?  2nd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Bauer, Laurie, Rochelle Lieber, and Ingo Plag. The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology. Oxford University Press,  2013. Dixon, Robert M.W. A Grammar of Yidin. Cambridge University Press, 1977. Dixon, Robert M.W. and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald. Words: A Typological Framework.  Word: A Cross-Linguistic Typology. Cambridge University Press, 2002. Julien, Marit. Syntactic Heads  and  Word Formation. Oxford University Press, 2002. Levelt, Willem J.M. and Peter Indefrey. The Speaking Mind/Brain: Where Do Spoken Words Come From. Image, Language, Brain: Papers From the First Project Symposium. Edited  by Alec P. Marantz, Yasushi Miyashita, et al., The MIT Press, 2000.

Target Diversity Target s Diversity Initiative - 754 Words

Target s Diversity Initiative Diversity is becoming a more increasing and ever changing dynamic to the business environment. Organizations can either embrace and grow with diversity or be left behind and die out. One of the organizations that is growing with diversity is Target. This paper will look at Target in depth on what they are doing right and wrong, what makes them a leader in diversity, and what leadership is doing to encourage diversity. Background Founded in 1902, Target has been continually growing and expanding their organization. With their growth, Target has opened multiple stores and began to give back to the community as soon as financially responsible (Target, 2015). Their main goal has always been to improve the community and grow with the changes. History Target was founded in 1902 first named Dayton Dry Goods Company by founder George D. Dayton (Target, 2015). After a lot of expansion and growth, Dayton Dry Goods was renamed to Target in 1961 after a mass marketing move to cater to value-oriented shoppers that wanted high quality items. In 1962, the Target bullseye symbol was adopted (Target, 2015). Over the years Target began to expand and grow throughout the entire United States. In 1983, Target was recognized for their community involvement (Target, 2015). Target has grown with technology as being the first mass merchandiser in 1983 to implement UPC scanning in their stores and distributors. In support of education, TargetShow MoreRelatedTypes Of Diversity Protected Under Federal Laws886 Words   |  4 Pages Types of Diversity There are six main categories of diversity protected under federal laws. They are gender, age, race/ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and disabilities. Each diversity brings something new and different to an organization s culture. 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America s Worst Economic Period - 1255 Words

On the morning of September 11th 2001, America suffered one of most deadly and well-known terrorist attacks in history. With over 3,000 deaths and damage to New York City and the Pentagon, America went into shock in under two hours. 20% of Americas knew of a family member, friend, or co-worker who suffered a causality in the attack. The Dow Jones Industrial Average suffered its greatest one day drop since the Great Depression, our nation’s worst economic period. The American people were placed in a situation they had never been before. They lost hope in government and its ability to protect our nation’s boundaries and our nation’s people. Troops were sent into Afghanistan and Iraq within months to protect our nation. Yet the American†¦show more content†¦America, a country founded and based upon the ideas of democracy, saw issues in the actions of Soviet Union and engaged in wars in these satellite nations, such as the War in Afghanistan – startin g in 1978. Back then, America saw the world in rather simple terms. On one side was the Soviet Union and Third World nationalism, which America regarded as a Soviet tool. On the other side was Western nations and militant political Islam, which America considered an ally in the struggle against the Soviet Union. America seeked the help of Afghans to assist them in the fighting against the Soviets. Many volunteers from Arab countries had gone to Afghanistan during the 1980s. They wanted to help the Afghans fight the invading Russian army. They supported the Afghans as they were also followers of Islam. For the Arab volunteers the battle was a Jihad or holy war. However, when the Soviet army was defeated, these people continued to fight. When the Russian army was defeated, al-Qaeda was set up to continue the Jihad against people the volunteers thought were enemies of Islam. An organization and its leader who was funded and trained by the Central Intelligence Agency, an agency run by t he U.S. Government, would attack America decades later. The rise of Al-Qaeda in the 1990s and especially following the attacks in 2001, terrorist groups formed rampantly. They became concentrated in areas of the world with turmoil, such as the Middle East and West Asia. Some even formed in a

Criminal Theory free essay sample

People with anti-social behaviors are defined by â€Å"A persuasive pattern of disregard for, and violation, of the rights of others that begins in early childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. † (Walsh and Hemmens page 238) People with this disorder are up for greater health risks, for the disorder makes a person be a risk taker, usually engaging in smoking, alcohol, risky sexual behavior’s and drugs. Their also at risk for they are prone to depression, inflicting self-wounds and violent acts towards others. In this state of mind people are emotional, non-cognitive, and have low self-esteem. Making them act out in violent manners. This behavior is linked to childhood. As a child if something wasn’t right, they were shy or forgotten they probably put on a mask and faked being what society views as normal. They are not connected with society. And they do not understand social norms. They have become experts on faking feelings, and they do not know emotion or empathy. These people are deceitful, manipulative, egocentric, selfish and lacking guilt. Dealing with regards of crime and Anti-social disorder, the criminals often view that their victims were not â€Å"wrong†. Drug users viewing their addiction to a social norm that isn’t there. They do not understand what they are doing is wrong and have no sense of guilt or cognitive thinking process. They do not feel any kind of remorse for the things of which they have done simply because they cannot empathize with the people or actions against which they are offending. Neutralization theory was created by Skyes and Matza. This theory explains that the offender has a positive view on the crime he or she has committed. Also similar to Anti-Social individuals these criminals view that they have done nothing wrong. Unlike Anti-Social disorder, Neutralization theory states that the offender puts the excuses in their own head, not merely understanding the social norms. There are five techniques that Neutralization theory uses in justifying their crimes. The first way people neutralize their crimes and actions they have done is called â€Å"Denial of Responsibility† which is shifting the blame from the offender to the victim. An example is when a rapist says in court â€Å"she was asking for it the way she was dressed and or acting. † They feel absolutely no guilt for the crimes that they have committed. They feel no responsibility at all for the victim and their injuries. The second technique is called â€Å"Denial of Injury†. This is where the offender has no attachment to the crime and has not caused any real injury or offenses. An example of this would be a person breaking a entering and smashing a window in and claiming â€Å"the insurance will cover it. † â€Å"Denial of Victim† is the third technique. This is where the offender says the victim received what they deserved, almost viewed as karma. Most domestic cases portray this, saying significant other or victim got what they deserved from these actions. The fourth technique is â€Å"Condemnation of the Condemners† where the offender states part of the blame on the condemners. These condemners are police, parents, probation officers, etc. An example of this would be the criminal blaming the officer for planting evidence on them or the crime scene and not taking any of the responsibility that it was there’s. Number five is â€Å"Appeal to a Higher Loyalty†. This is where the offender in committed and or loyal to something or someone in their life for the greater good according to their beliefs. Things that would fall under this category re murder or assault. A good example of this would be a person under mafia rule murdering someone for the leader or the greater good of that mafia. Ted Bundy was made famous for his criminal actions. His five-state murder spree was not lightly forgotten. Bundy killed over 100 women and only gave information about where the bodies were of fifty of the acclaimed victims. Comparing hi s life, actions, and behavior point to Anti-Social Behavioral theory and Neutralization theory the most. Putting these theories to the test trying to profile a serial killer. Theodore Robert Cowell was born in 1946 to an single mother that moved in with her parents. He grew up thinking his grandparents were is parents and his mother was his sister. Later in life his mother married and he became Ted Bundy. Growing up he was a â€Å"normal† child, he was an attractive teen that was well liked in school. He did relatively well in his academics. He was known for being shy; people profiled him to be socially awkward. He never did grow out of this stage and the profile followed him to college. Bundy went first to the University of Puget Sound. It was a highly regarded school and many of its students were wealthy. This made ted feel inadequate and inferior due to financial aspects. He left and went to University of Washington. His shyness held him back with social activities and dating, but Bundy did find someone that he fell for. They had the same skiing passion, spending most of days on the slopes. And he soon fell in love and became obsessive. He tried impressing her with receiving scholarships and accomplishments but they fell flat. She ended the relationship saying he wasn’t going anywhere in life and wasn’t husband material. This haunted him for the rest of his life and fell into an extreme depression. While in this depression he had dropped out of school. His anti-social behavior got worse. Also during this time he found out who his mother actually was. Bundy was a on a slippery slope downhill, he was labeled as a petty thief. He soon came out of his depression had false bravo, went back to college and got a bachelor’s degree in psychology. With his new found self he was on top of the world. He was with a new woman that adored him and his first love wanted him back. He had one foot in the political arena. During his time at college women had gone missing from campus. They narrowed the quest down to a man asking for help then kidnapping the women. Bundy being smart realized it was only just a matter of time till local officials connected the dots. So Bundy moved to Utah and enrolled in the University of Utah. He didn’t stop his attacks just because he had moved. Women were being abducted and reported missing at the campus and malls around the city. While in Utah police had discovered a graveyard of bones. They eventually put the dots together and figured out it was Ted. They now knew that he was dealing with a criminal that could go across state lines. Bundy didn’t stop at Utah he also went to Colorado during ski season and killed women there before he was finally caught due to a car suspicion. He was charged with kidnapping charges. During his trial he was charged with murder of one known victim. But he escaped out the library widow being his own attorney. He made his way down to Florida where he rented a house at Florida State University. He was known for his sorority house killings. Ted Bundy was arrested again due to evidence of teeth impressions on a victim’s chest. He was charged with murder and recieved a plea bargain of three twenty five year sentences. He refused the plea and wanted another trail during this time new evidence came forward and at the new trail he was sentenced to death by means of the electric chair. Prior to his death he attempted over 100 murders, keeping some heads of his victims and necrophilia. When asked why he did everything he blamed it on his early exposures to pornography as his stimulants to his obsession with murder. Ted Bundy falls under a lot of different theories but Anti-Social Behavioral theory is most demanding. He was awkward in his youth, not in a strong stable family life, had difficulty dating and participating in other social events. He wore a mask covering himself from the world. He knew he was different and had to change or it would be noticed, so he became a well-known member of society and was respected. He felt no remorse for things that he had done. This action falls under Psychopathy, he found pleasure in re-living kills. Going towards Neutralization theory he blamed the women for the things that he had done. He connected them to his college girlfriend that had dumped him. That they needed to die because of what she did to him. That neutralized any feeling he had towards making these killings. He strongly viewed he was not at fault, and he plead not guilty until he was on the electric chair. In an interview he states â€Å"I don’t know what made people want to be friends. I don’t know what made people attractive to one another. I don’t know what underlays in these social interactions. † The above statement proves my point of the Anti-Social Behavior. He was lacking things that we as â€Å"normal† human beings understand. He goes on to answer the question â€Å"Are murders born or made? Nature vs. nurture? † it’s still an ongoing debate to this day. In my opinion and conclusion Ted Bundy was nurtured.